History of Global Warming Essay Example for Free

History of Global Warming Essay The succession of exceptional years with record high temperatures, which characterized the 1980s, helped to generate widespread popular interest in global warming and its many ramifications. The decade included six of the warmest years in the past century, and the trend continued into the 1990s, with 1991 the second warmest year on record. All of this fuelled speculation especially among the media that the earth’s temperature had begun an inexorable rise and the idea was further reinforced by the results of scientific studies which indicated that global mean temperatures had risen by about 0. Â °C since the beginning of the century. Periods of rising temperature are not unknown in the earth’s past. The most significant of these was the so-called Climatic Optimum, which occurred some 5,000-7,000 years ago and was associated with a level of warming that has not been matched since. If the current global warming continues, however, the record temperatures of the earlier period will easily be surpassed. Temperatures reached during a later warm spell in the early Middle Ages may well have been equaled already. More recently, the 1930s provided some of the highest temperatures since records began, although that decade has been relegated to second place by events in the 1980s. Such warm spells have been accepted as part of the natural variability of the earth/ atmosphere system in the past, but the current warming is viewed in a different light. It appears to be the first global warming to be created by human activity. The basic cause is seen as the enhancement of the greenhouse effect, brought on by rising levels of anthropogenically-produced greenhouse gases. It is now generally accepted that the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere have been increasing since the latter part of the nineteenth century. The increased use of fossil fuels has released large amounts of CO2, and the destruction of natural vegetation has prevented the environment from restoring the balance. Levels of other greenhouse gases, including CH4, N2 O and CFCs have also been rising. Since all of these gases have the ability to retain terrestrial radiation in the atmosphere, the net result should be a gradual increase in global temperatures. The link between recent warming and the enhancement of the greenhouse effect seems obvious. Most of the media, and many of those involved in the investigation and analysis of global climate change, seem to have accepted the relationship as a fait accompli. There are only a few dissenting voices, expressing misgivings about the nature of the evidence and the rapidity with which it has been embraced. A survey of environmental scientists involved in the study of the earth’s changing climate, conducted in the spring of 1989, revealed that many still had doubts about the extent of the warming. More than 60 per cent of those questioned indicated that they were not completely confident that the current warming was beyond the range of normal natural variations in global temperatures (Slade 1990). The greenhouse effect is brought about by the ability of the atmosphere to be selective in its response to different types of radiation. The atmosphere readily transmits solar radiation which is mainly short-wave energy from the ultraviolet end of the energy spectrum allowing it to pass through unaltered to heat the earth’s surface. The energy absorbed by the earth is reradiated into the atmosphere, but this terrestrial radiation is long-wave infrared, and instead of being transmitted it is absorbed, causing the temperature of the atmosphere to rise. Some of the energy absorbed in the atmosphere is returned to the earth’s surface, causing its temperature to rise also. This is considered similar to the way in which a greenhouse works allowing sunlight in, but trapping the resulting heat inside hence the use of the name ‘greenhouse effect’. In reality it is the glass in the greenhouse which allows the temperature to be maintained, by preventing the mixing of the warm air inside with the cold air outside. There is no such barrier to mixing in the real atmosphere, and some scientists have suggested that the processes are sufficiently different to preclude the use of the term ‘greenhouse effect’. Anthes et al. (1980) for example, prefer to use ‘atmospheric effect’. However, the use of the term ‘greenhouse effect’ to describe the ability of the atmosphere to absorb infrared energy is so well established that any change would cause needless confusion. The demand for change is not strong, and ‘greenhouse effect’ will continue to be used widely for descriptive purposes, although the analogy is not perfect. Without the greenhouse effect, global temperatures would be much lower than they are perhaps averaging only ? 17Â °C compared to the existing average of +15Â °C. This, then, is a very important characteristic of the atmosphere, yet it is made possible by a group of gases which together make up less than 1 per cent of the total volume of the atmosphere. There are about twenty of these greenhouse gases. Carbon dioxide is the most abundant, but methane, nitrous oxide, the chlorofluorocarbons and tropospheric ozone are potentially significant, although the impact of the ozone is limited by its variability and short life span. Water vapour also exhibits greenhouse properties, but it has received less attention in the greenhouse debate than the other gases since the very efficient natural recycling of water through the hydrologic cycle ensures that its atmospheric concentration is little affected by human activities. Any change in the volume of the greenhouse gases will disrupt the energy flow in the earth/atmosphere system, and this will be reflected in changing world temperatures. This is nothing new. Although the media sometimes seem to suggest that the greenhouse effect is a modern phenomenon, it is not. It has been a characteristic of the atmosphere for millions of years, sometimes more intense than it is now, sometimes less. Three of the principal greenhouse gases—CO2, methane (CH4) and the CFCs—contain carbon, one of the most common elements in the environment, and one which plays a major role in the greenhouse effect. It is present in all organic substances, and is a constituent of a great variety of compounds, ranging from relatively simple gases to very complex derivatives of petroleum hydrocarbons. The carbon in the environment is mobile, readily changing its affiliation with other elements in response to biological, chemical and physical processes. This mobility is controlled through a natural biogeochemical cycle which works to maintain a balance between the release of carbon compounds from their sources and their absorption in sinks. The natural carbon cycle is normally considered to be self-regulating, but with a time scale of the order of thousands of years. Over shorter periods, the cycle appears to be unbalanced, but that may be a reflection of an incomplete understanding of the processes involved or perhaps an indication of the presence of sinks or reservoirs still to be discovered (Moore and Bolin 1986). The carbon in the system moves between several major reservoirs. The atmosphere, for example, contains more than 750 billion tones of carbon at any given time, while 2,000 billion tones are stored on land, and close to 40,000 billion tones are contained in the oceans (Gribbin 1978). Living terrestrial organic matter is estimated to contain between 450 and 600 billion tones, somewhat less than that stored in the atmosphere (Moore and Bolin 1986). World fossil fuel reserves also constitute an important carbon reservoir of some 5,000 billion tones (McCarthy et al. 1986). They contain carbon which has not been active in the cycle for millions of years, but is now being reintroduced as a result of the growing demand for energy in modern society being met by the mining and burning of fossil fuels. It is being reactivated in the form of CO2, which is being released into the atmospheric reservoir in quantities sufficient to disrupt the natural flow of carbon in the environment. The greatest natural flow (or flux) is between the atmosphere and terrestrial biota and between the atmosphere and the oceans. Although these fluxes vary from time to time, they have no long-term impact on the greenhouse effect because they are an integral part of the earth/atmosphere system. In contrast, inputs to the atmosphere from fossil fuel consumption, although smaller than the natural flows, involve carbon which has not participated in the system for millions of years. When it is reintroduced, the system cannot cope immediately, and becomes unbalanced. The natural sinks are unable to absorb the new CO2 as rapidly as it is being produced. The excess remains in the atmosphere, to intensify the greenhouse effect, and thus contribute to global warming. The burning of fossil fuels adds more than 5 billion tones of CO2 to the atmosphere every year, with more than 90 per cent originating in North and Central America, Asia, Europe and the republics of the former USSR. Fossil fuel use remains the primary source of anthropogenic CO2 but augmenting that is the destruction of natural vegetation which causes the level of atmospheric CO2 to increase by reducing the amount recycled during photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a process, shared by all green plants, by which solar energy is converted into chemical energy. It involves gaseous exchange. During the process, CO2 taken in through the plant leaves is broken down into carbon and oxygen. The carbon is retained by the plant while the oxygen is released into the atmosphere. The role of vegetation in controlling CO2 through photosynthesis is clearly indicated by variations in the levels of the gas during the growing season. Measurements at Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii show patterns in which CO2 concentrations are lower during the northern summer and higher during the northern winter. These variations reflect the effects of photosynthesis in the northern hemisphere, which contains the bulk of the world’s vegetation (Bolin 1986). Plants absorb CO2 during their summer growing phase, but not during their winter dormant period, and the difference is sufficient to cause semi-annual fluctuations in global CO2 levels. The clearing of vegetation raises CO2 levels indirectly through reduced photosynthesis, but CO2 is also added directly to the atmosphere by burning, by the decay of biomass and by the increased oxidation of carbon from the newly exposed soil. Such processes are estimated to be responsible for 5-20 per cent of current anthropogenic CO2 emissions (Waterstone 1993). This is usually considered a modern phenomenon, particularly prevalent in the tropical rainforests of South America and South-East Asia (Gribbin 1978), but Wilson (1978) has suggested that the pioneer agricultural settlement of North America, Australasia and South Africa in the second half of the nineteenth century made an important contribution to rising CO2 levels. This is supported to some extent by the observation that between 1850 and 1950 some 120 billion tones of carbon were released into the atmosphere as a result of deforestation and the destruction of other vegetation by fire (Stuiver 1978). The burning of fossil fuels produced only half that much CO2 over the same time period. Current estimates indicate that the atmospheric CO2 increase resulting from reduced photosynthesis and the clearing of vegetation is equivalent to about 1 billion tones per year (Moore and Bolin 1986), down slightly from the earlier value. However, the annual contribution from the burning of fossil fuels is almost ten times what it was in the years between 1850 and 1950. Although the total annual input of CO2 to the atmosphere is of the order of 6 billion tonnes, the atmospheric CO2 level increases by only about 2. billion tonnes per year. The difference is distributed to the oceans, to terrestrial biota and to other sinks as yet unknown (Moore and Bolin 1986). Although the oceans are commonly considered to absorb 2. 5 billion tonnes of CO2 per year, recent studies suggest that the actual total may be only half that amount (Taylor 1992). The destination of the remainder has important implications for the study of the greenhouse effect, and continues to be investigated. The oceans absorb the CO2 in a variety of ways—some as a result of photosynthesis in phytoplankton, some through nutritional processes which allow marine organisms to grow calcium carbonate shells or skeletons, and some by direct diffusion at the air/ocean interface (McCarthey et al. 1986). The mixing of the ocean waters causes the redistribution of the absorbed CO2. In polar latitudes, for example, the added carbon sinks along with the cold surface waters in that region, whereas in warmer latitudes carbon-rich waters well up towards the surface allowing the CO2 to escape again. The turnover of the deep ocean waters is relatively slow, however, and carbon carried there in the sinking water or in the skeletons of dead marine organisms remains in storage for hundreds of years. More rapid mixing takes place through surface ocean currents such as the Gulf Stream, but in general the sea responds only slowly to changes in atmospheric CO2 levels. This may explain the apparent inability of the oceans to absorb more than 40-50 per cent of the CO2 added to the atmosphere by human activities, although it has the capacity to absorb all of the additional carbon (Moore and Bolin 1986). The oceans constitute the largest active reservoir of carbon in the earth/atmosphere system, and their ability to absorb CO2 is not in doubt. However, the specific mechanisms involved are now recognized as extremely complex, requiring more research into the interactions between the atmosphere, ocean and biosphere if they are to be better understood (Crane and Liss 1985). Palaeoenvironmental evidence suggests that the greenhouse effect fluctuated quite considerably in the past. In the Quaternary era, for example, it was less intense during glacial periods than during the interglacials (Bach 1976; Pisias and Imbrie 1986). Present concern is with its increasing intensity and the associated global warming. The rising concentration of atmospheric CO2 is usually identified as the main culprit, although it is not the most powerful of the greenhouse gases. It is the most abundant, however, and its concentration is increasing rapidly. As a result, it is considered likely to give a good indication of the trend of the climatic impact of the greenhouse effect, if not its exact magnitude. Svante Arrhenius, a Swedish chemist, is usually credited with being the first to recognize that an increase in CO2 would lead to global warming (Bolin 1986; Bach 1976; Crane and Liss 1985). Other scientists, including John Tyndall in Britain and T. C. Chamberlin in America (Jones and Henderson-Sellers 1990), also investigated the link, but Arrhenius provided the first quantitative predictions of the rise in temperature (Idso 1981; Crane and Liss 1985). He published his findings at the beginning of this century, at a time when the environmental implications of the Industrial Revolution were just beginning to be appreciated. Little attention was paid to the potential impact of increased levels of CO2 on the earth’s radiation climate for some time after that, however, and the estimates of CO2 -induced temperature increases calculated by Arrhenius in 1903 were not bettered until the early 1960s (Bolin 1986). Occasional papers on the topic appeared, but interest only began to increase significantly in the early 1970s, as part of a growing appreciation of the potentially dire consequences of human interference in the environment. Increased CO2 production and rising atmospheric turbidity were recognized as two important elements capable of causing changes in climate. The former had the potential to cause greater warming, whereas the latter was considered more likely to cause cooling (Schneider, 1987). For a time it seemed that the cooling would dominate (Ponte 1976), but results from a growing number of investigations into greenhouse warming, published in the early 1980s, changed that (e. g. Idso 1981; Schneider 1987; Mitchell 1983). They revealed that scientists had generally underestimated the speed with which the greenhouse effect was intensifying, and had failed to appreciate the impact of the subsequent global warming on the environment or on human activities.

The Afro-Cuban Struggle for Equality Essay -- Cuba Equality Racism Ess

The Afro-Cuban Struggle for Equality Introduction During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the island of Cuba was in the process of emerging from a Spanish colony to an independent nation. Freedom from Spain, however, was not the only struggle that Cuba was experiencing at this time. After having been oppressed by slavery for several centuries, Afro-Cubans, who had joined the fight for independence in large numbers, were demanding equality in Cuban society. Nevertheless, whites, especially in the elite, continued to initiate discriminatory practices against them. As a last resort, Afro-Cubans staged an armed protest in response to the outlawing of their political party in 1912. Although valiant, the attempt was nonetheless a failure because it did not succeed in establishing racial equality in Cuba. Rather, it tragically resulted in the massacre of thousands of Afro-Cuban protesters by Cuban whites. Discussion As was the case throughout the Americas, white racism against blacks and mulattos was deeply rooted in Cuban society. Prejudice and discrimination against Afro-Cubans continued to increase after the abolition of slavery in 1886. Whites, particularly those in the upper classes, viewed blacks and mulattos as belonging to an inferior race that was unworthy of the same rights and privileges that they themselves enjoyed in society. Education, entertainment, and employment were some of the areas in which Afro-Cubans suffered significant discrimination. They were often denied acceptance into private schools, given separate accommodations in theaters and other entertainment establishments, refused service by many restaurants, and were usually unable to obtain employment in professional and skille... ...test as a last resort to bring about its restoration. Nevertheless, it resulted in failure when Afro-Cubans were massacred by the thousands. Conclusion The massacre of 1912 demonstrated that there remained to be seen true racial equality in Cuba. Although the wars of independence had brought about some improvements in race relations, such as the fraternity shared between the races when fighting together against Spain, and the recognition of some Afro-Cubans as outstanding military leaders, the nation’s black and mulatto populations remained for the most part at the lower levels of society. Without politicians who would support their interests, Afro-Cubans would continue to be without equal opportunities in Cuba. Works Cited Helg, Aline. Our Rightful Share: The Afro-Cuban Struggle for Equality. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1995.

Lead and Manage Group Living for Adults Essay

I work in a residential care home and as much as we try our very best to individualise and personalise care plans, bedrooms, give freedom of choice wherever possible, the home still has barriers to full freedom and because of the shared living space, it can be difficult for the residents to have their own space. The decision to come into a residential care setting usually means that the resident needs that extra support and wants the extra company and reassurance that being in a care home gives. Person centred care is set to enable everyone to live as independently as possible, but the reality is, people need care. Residential care homes and sheltered living accommodation have improved greatly when we compare the institutions of many years ago, the asylums, where people with all sorts of disabilities were held together. There were numerous reports of abuse in such places, which led to them closing and a more community style care service was put in place. Now there are many different options for the elderly, there is a lot of elderly people in Wales that are maintaining their independence at home, with a care package. Carers from an agency call several times throughout the day, night, depending on what the social services think they require, or what they can afford privately. As much as I think this is great, as it must be heartbreaking to give up your family home, it concerns me, as I hear horror stories of the elderly being left for several hours, maybe falling, sitting in their own urine or excrement and having limited choices throughout their day as to when they can get up out of bed, go to bed or even eat. The carers have allocated time slots each day and are allowed only a set time with each house visit, and then in-between they might be alone for long periods. I know that such people can have a lifeline, which they can press to get assistance, the lifeline reaches a call centre and the call centre will then contact the named people on their list to go and see if all is well, or might send an ambulance if they feel the need. Lifelines are a great idea, if they are used correctly, I have heard of several who leave theirs at the side of the bed, they either cannot reach, or fall whilst visiting the toilet and are unable to get to it. I have also heard tales of people pressing their lifeline to get some response off someone, someone to talk to, some company, as they are lonely or even fretful during the lonely  night hours. Sheltered accommodation is a great idea, each person has their own individual flat, often with a main front door with different door alarms on so they can call on the person they are visiting and go straight to see them. These flats are contained, small, easy to get around and keep clean, they can have call leads in several rooms in case of an emergency, they can cook for themselves if they so require, make themselves tea, watch what they want on the television and live quite independently. There used to be a warden present 24 hours a day, well almost, a 9-5 day shift, and then sleep in, during the night to be available in case of an emergency. Of course now there are so many cutbacks that live in wardens have been stopped throughout Wales, possibly elsewhere. There are now teams of 3 or 4 wardens that look after several establishments, they take turns to go around each unit, calling on the residents to ensure they are ok, they are usually there 9-1, half a day, then if the residents have any issues they must use their lifeline, or the emergency chord, which instead of being linked to the warden is now linked to a head office, who will contact relevant help for the resident. A residential home, I can only speak of ours, I have worked in 2 other nursing homes as well as the residential home I currently work in. Our home is homely, not clinical, it has carpet, not laminate or tiled flooring and it has a beautiful garden and outlook, large communal areas, including a big conservatory and lounge space split into two sides. The home is decorated tastefully for the residents, with flowers and plants and pictures, homely but not cluttered, the residents bedrooms are personalised by themselves with their belongings and choice of dà ©cor. The home does its best to treat every resident in a person centred approach, but it can be difficult to meet all needs accordingly. There are set meal times, which can be flexible to a point, they are offered alternative menu choices, but it isn’t always convenient for residents to eat whenever they so chose to. I must say that the residents are offered several snacks and drinks throughout the day so are very rarely hungry. The residents are able to come and go to their rooms as they wish, if they are safe to do so. The residents have a choice of communal area, or to go out and sit in the garden if they wish. Their meals are served in a communal dining room, but there are a few ladies that prefer  to sit alone in the communal areas to eat their meal, which is fine. There are carers available 24 hours a day, to assist as little or as much as needed for each resident, they are assisted with personal care, if required, with meals and much more. Throughout the home there is a nurse call buzzer system, if a resident needs help they can just buzz the buzzer, which is linked to a panel that shows the care staff where the buzzer has gone off so they can go and assist in whatever way needed. The home has a lift and a chair lift, aids in the bathrooms, toilets and showers, a laundry facility, a kitchen, domestic assistants, etc. I imagine many people compare the residential care setting to the hotel model of care, where residents come into care and do nothing much for themselves anymore. Maybe a lot of that is true, but not because they are not allowed to do anything for themselves, but because many chose not to, they are old, tired and have health complications and restrictions and want a rest. There are a few residents who like keeping busy and love to help with tasks around the home, laying tables, wiping tops, collecting cups, folding napkins, which is fantastic, but there are more that aren’t interested in any domestic chores. Housing with care for later life, a review written for the Joseph Rowntree Foundation, suggests that there are so many different levels of housing facilities and choices available as a result of how care has developed in the UK over the last 20 years, with things changing to meet the needs of the tenants. Housing with some care is the most popular option that social and health care professionals like to choose for as many as possible, it seems to be the most popular as it is the most independent way of living for the elderly, with some level of support and security if needed. Extra care housing, which are establishments that provide a meal, additional services , barrier free environments are also known as very sheltered housing, I know very little about or I don’t know of any in my area, but they sound great. (Oldsman 200, Baker 2002) have written about such housing. There isn’t much difference between them and residential care homes, except they have their own front doors and are called tenants or owners, they can go and mix with other tenants in communal areas if they wish and are provided with a meal and the use of communal facilities or assisted technologies if they want them. It is important to consider an individual’s safety as well as their own choices, safety and security are as important as freedom of choice, as there are many elderly people that are extremely vulnerable and think that they are able to do much more than they can. Take for example Mrs H in our home; she loves to sit in her room alone for hours at a time. She is unable to walk, only transfer from chair to chair, to bed etc, she is a really bad epileptic and once she has a fit, it is difficult for ambulance staff, when called to bring her out of the fit, she usually requires hospital assistance as she has trouble breathing during her fit. She asks to go to her room all the time, but it is a huge risk and Mrs H has severe mental health issues after a brain bleed has been deemed to not have capacity to make safe decisions for herself. Several times when she has fitted, the care staff have seen it start in the lounge as they pass by and have managed to get to her in time to put her in the recovery position and remove anything that might cause her more harm Mrs H doesn’t understand when trying to explain to her why she is unable to go and sit in her room for hours at a time, but does go up for shorter time periods. It is important that any care setting is tastefully decorated to suit the residents that live there, to look homely, welcoming, and familiar, kept clean, and refurbished whenever necessary. Residents will feel more positive if they are in a pleasant environment, with a nice outlook, with comfortable furniture to sit on, with accessible amenities they can use themselves, a TV, drinks machine, books, music equipment, suitable lighting etc. Legal requirements have made a huge impact on care offered to the elderly today, when we look back at how things have changed, we have definitely come along way, but I would definitely not say we are there yet, as things are always changing, people change, and we need to also. Individualistic consumer led approach to care in the 80’s and 90’s led to the government looking at decreasing the dependency culture, to enable people to be as independent at they could. There have been many changes over the years with the financial support given to those with various needs, which enables them to choose their level of care and support and where they wish to live etc. The 1989 Caring for People white paper led the way for care in the community, as well as the NHS Community Care Act 1990, which promoted independent living for people with a more flexible care  service. In 200 the Care Standards Act came into place, they are basically in place to regulate all care facilities to ensure that everything within their power is being done to a satisfactory level. Along with the regulating, they also inspect care settings and have power to make big decisions and requirements for each place they visit, as a result of this Act we now have the National Minimum standards to adhere to.

Arrhenius Base Definition (Chemistry)

An Arrhenius base is a substance that when added to water increases the number of OH- ions in the water. The base dissociates in water to form hydroxide (OH-) ions. It may decrease the aqueous hydronium ion (H3O) concentration.Arrhenius bases follow the reaction:base H2O → conjugate acid OH- Source Paik, Seoung-Hey (2015). Understanding the Relationship Among Arrhenius, Brà ¸nsted–Lowry, and Lewis Theories. Journal of Chemical Education. 92 (9): 1484–1489. doi:10.1021/ed500891w